Medieval science carried on the views of the
Hellenist civilization of Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle, as shown by Alhazen's lost work
A
Book in which I have Summarized the Science of Optics from the Two
Books of Euclid and Ptolemy, to which I have added the Notions of the
First Discourse which is Missing from Ptolemy's Book from
Ibn Abi Usaibia's catalog, as cited in (
Smith 2001).
:91(vol.1),p.xv Alhazen conclusively disproved Ptolemy's theory of vision, but he retained Aristotle's ontology;
Roger Bacon,
Vitello, and
John Peckham each built up a scholastic ontology upon Alhazen's
Book of Optics,
a causal chain beginning with sensation, perception, and finally
apperception of the individual and universal forms of Aristotle.
[28] This model of vision became known as Perspectivism, which was exploited and studied by the artists of the Renaissance.
A. Mark Smith points out the perspectivist theory of vision, which pivots on three of Aristotle's
four causes, formal, material, and final, "is remarkably economical, reasonable, and coherent."
[30]
Although Alhacen knew that a scene imaged through an aperture is
inverted, he argued that vision is about perception. This was overturned
by
Kepler,
[31]:p.102
who modelled the eye as a water-filled glass sphere with an aperture in
front of it to model the entrance pupil. He found that all the light
from a single point of the scene was imaged at a single point at the
back of the glass sphere. The optical chain ends on the retina at the
back of the eye and the image is inverted.
[nb 10]
Copernicus formulated a
heliocentric model of the solar system unlike the
geocentric model of
Ptolemy's
Almagest.
Galileo
made innovative use of experiment and mathematics. However, he became
persecuted after Pope Urban VIII blessed Galileo to write about the
Copernican system. Galileo had used arguments from the Pope and put them
in the voice of the simpleton in the work "Dialogue Concerning the Two
Chief World Systems," which greatly offended him.
[32]
In Northern Europe, the new technology of the
printing press was widely used to publish many arguments, including some that disagreed widely with contemporary ideas of nature.
René Descartes and
Francis Bacon
published philosophical arguments in favor of a new type of
non-Aristotelian science. Descartes argued that mathematics could be
used in order to study nature, as Galileo had done, and Bacon emphasized
the importance of experiment over contemplation. Bacon questioned the
Aristotelian concepts of formal cause and final cause, and promoted the
idea that science should study the laws of "simple" natures, such as
heat, rather than assuming that there is any specific nature, or "
formal cause," of each complex type of thing. This new modern science began to see itself as describing "
laws of nature." This updated approach to studies in nature was seen as
mechanistic. Bacon also argued that science should aim for the first time at practical inventions for the improvement of all human life.
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